Organizational Structure and Process Design Essay

Introduction Maruti Udyog Limited is a subsidiary of Suzuki Motor Corporation, the largest manufacturer of mini passenger vehicles in Japan in terms of sales volumes. Suzuki was also the eleventh largest vehicle manufacturer in the world and the fourth largest manufacturer in Japan in terms of worldwide sales volumes in 2000. Maruti was ranked twentieth in terms of worldwide sales volumes amongst vehicle manufacturers, and has been the largest passenger car manufacturer in India. In fiscal 2002, it had the highest sales volumes of 339,964 cars and a market share of 58.6%. Maruti has a diverse product range that includes ten basic models with over 50 variants, of which nine models are manufactured locally and one is imported from Suzuki. A timeline showing the evolution of Maruti over the years is given in the appendix. Maruti?s manufacturing facility comprises three integrated plants (all located in the same premises) located at Gurgaon in the state of Haryana. The production facility capability at each plant is upgraded on an ongoing basis to improve productivity and quality. At present, it has an installed capacity of 350,000 vehicles per year, which is the highest among passenger car manufacturers in India and among all passenger car manufacturing facilities of Suzuki?s subsidiaries outside Japan. There are total 17 manufacturing shops and are capable of producing more than 50 variants of the nine basic models manufactured, with different specifications, within the same day. The production of a car occurs in the following stages: Press Shop, Weld Shop, Paint Shop, Assembly Shop, Machine Shop and Engine shops. Maruti has extensive sales and service network, the largest network of dealers and service centers amongst car manufacturers in India. As of March, 2003, they had 178 authorized dealers with 243 sales outlets in 161 cities. For service, they had 342 dealer workshops and 1,545 Maruti Authorized Service Stations, or MASSs, which covered 898 cities in India backed by Express Service Centers on 30 highways across the country. For the supply of raw materials, components and spare parts of their products, they have 299 vendors all over the country. Vendors located within  a radius of 100 km from their facility supply the majority of our components. As of March, 2003, Maruti had 4,590 employees, including 614 engineers, 84 MBA graduates and 24 chartered accountants. Methodology We chose to study Maruti as its takeover and integration with Suzuki as well as dramatic changes in its task environment presented an interesting period to understand. Also we had a person with more than six years of experience in Maruti in our group and we were able to leverage his contacts within Maruti to get the required information. We interacted with a member of Senior Management of Maruti at Delhi through e-mail. This gave us a broader picture of structure and strategy of Maruti. Then we interviewed the head of Regional office of Maruti at Bangalore which helped us understand the dynamics of its vendor, dealer relationships better. We also chatted with a MUL employee undergoing training at SMC Japan to get a fell of culture of Suzuki. Last but not the least we interacted with summer interns and ex-employees of Maruti at IIM Bangalore. All these formal and informal interactions helped us form a holistic view of the organization and we were better able to appreciate the systems and processes at Maruti. Organizational Structure Maruti has a Functional organizational structure with Horizontal Linkages. The activities are divided broadly based on following functions Finance, Marketing, Engineering, Sales, Spares, Production, Materials, Production Engineering, Parts Inspection, Quality Assurance, Maintenance, Human Recourse Development, Information Technology, New Business, Administration As, it is a very big organization, these are further divided into smaller divisions, based on various criteria (product, plant, location etc). There are total 29 divisions in Maruti, and are headed by one Divisional Head,  which is a Functional post. Then these Divisions are further divided into 132 Departments, which are headed by one Department Head, which again is a functional post. A smaller version of the organizational chart is shown below. The complete Organizational Chart is attached in the Excel file. Organizational Structure of Maruti Functionally, the structure of Maruti is very flat. The employees are divided in just six functional levels, namely Workers & Technicians, Supervisors, Executives, Section Managers, Department Manager, and Division Manager. Division Managers then report to Directors. However, hierarchically, these are divided into different levels, like, Technicians are divided in 7 levels (L-1 to L-7), Supervisors in 3 levels (L-8 to L-10), Executives and Managers in 4 levels (L-11 to L-14). Above this the Levels are designated as IDPM (Incharge Department Manager), DPM (Department Manager), DDVM (Deputy Division Manager), and DVM (Division Manager). The Section Manager, Department Manager and Division Manager are all Functional posts, which means anybody from levels L-11 to L-14 can be a Section Manager, an IDPM or a DPM can head a Department, and an DDVM or DVM can head a Division. Increasing importance of Boundary Spanning Units: With the increase in competition MUL has realized the importance of boundary spanning units. It requires its employees to pay frequent visits to showrooms of other car manufacturers to get information as to how they deal with their customers and what are the services offered by them. Once Puneet, our group member was asked to pay visit to a Hyundai showroom. He talked to the sales representative there and elicited as much information as he could. When Puneet was asked his telephone number he gave a fake number by changing the first and the last digit. Puneet was surprised when he received a call from the sales representative after two days (the person must have really tried different numbers). When asked about his decision,  Puneet told him that he has already bought a Maruti Zen. The sales representative congratulated Puneet for the new car and at the same time he asked what led Puneet to prefer Zen to Santro. During the entire conversation the representative was polite and enthusiastic. The amount of determination and dedication shown by this person was missing on part of the sales force of MUL and this was the feedback given by Puneet to his top-level managers. The increasing importance of Boundary spanning units can also be seen in the importance of department like Marketing and service. The head of Marketing and sales department reports directly to the MD whereas other departments like Finance and Production have to go through Joint Managing Directors. Horizontal Information Linkages 1.Information Systems Various Information Systems play a significant role in providing Horizontal Information Linkages. These Information Systems are well integrated and provide most of the information required by different departments. Most of these Information Systems were developed over time by the IT Department of Maruti. These Systems have evolved over time according to the changing information needs. The largest of such Information Systems is Production Management System, which provides the production related information to all the concerned departments. Some of the others are: Finance and payroll system, Marketing & sales systems, Spares Systems, Extranet with Dealers, Data warehousing and various MIS systems, Supply Chain Integration Initiatives (Extranets), Knowledge Management Portal, Vehicle tracking system etc. Apart from these Email, messaging and workflow systems also play an important role. 2.Direct Contact In some of the Departments, one person is designated as ?Coordinator? for different activities, which have a liaison role with other departments. An  example is the ?Quality Coordinator? in the Production Shop, who is a ?single window? for communication related to quality related issues. 3.Task Force In some specific short term tasks, various ?Cross Functional Teams? are formed taking people from all related departments to achieve the specific targets. Mostly they are used for Quality Improvement, Problem Solving, Cost Reduction, New product Development, New Product Trials related issues. Structural Dimensions 1.Formalization The automobile industry is a process driven industry. In Maruti also, the formalization is very high, all the operation procedures, standards, methods, instructions are written down formally. Apart from the ?Company-wide Procedures?, all Departments have their ?Department Procedures?. These Department Procedures define the scope of work for the department as well as the roles and responsibilities and work flows. These procedures are approved by the Division heads, and are available to all concerned (mostly in the form of electronic copy), and also available for other departments for reference. In production shops, the standard operating procedures are documented, and displayed on the work stations. They are called ?Maruti Operations Standards? or MOS. Similarly Maruti Engineering Standards (MES), Maruti Inspection Standards for Parts (MIS-P), Maruti Inspection Standards for Testing (MIS-T) etc are also available. Changes in all these documents are recorded for the purpose of back-tracking purpose. 2.Specialization The functional structure and further division of labor makes high degree of specialization in Maruti. 3.Hierarchy The span of control becomes a very interesting dimension in Maruti because most of the posts are functional in nature. If we look at the Section Manager in some department, then there might be 4-8 people of different levels (L-1 to L-13) directly reporting to him without any level-wise hierarchy amongst themselves. Therefore, in some cases, people working at as high level as L-13 do not have a direct sub-ordinate to them. The span of control is generally in the order of 3~6 at the top management level, 4~8 at the middle management level, and 0-5 at lower management levels (other than production). In production departments, the span of control at lower management level goes up to 40~50, as those many workers and technicians directly report to a line supervisor/ shift in-charge. 4.Centralization The Centralization is very low in Maruti, as the decision making authority is quite de-centralized and distributed across all levels. 5.Professionalism Maruti can be rated high on the Professionalism dimension, as most of the jobs require technical skills, and in some specific areas like Design and R&D, special training at Suzuki is also required. This is also evident from the fact that around 1900 employees of Maruti have been trained at facilities of Suzuki so far, and in the total work force, Maruti has around 80+ MBAs, 600+ Graduate Engineers, 200+ Diploma Engineers, and all the workers and technicians require minimum qualification of ITI. Use of Project based Teams In view of increasing competition in the automotive sector Maruti has tried  to use a project based structure to tackle specific problems effectively. Around two years back in a meeting of middle and senior level executives it was decided to form teams which would focus on specific goals. Around thirty teams comprising or 8 ? 10 members were formed. These teams had specific mandates in terms of cost reduction, new product development and were given resources and authority in order to implement their projects. For example, one team worked on value analysis and value engineering for specific components for cost reduction. Another team worked on improving the JD Power ratings that Maruti secured for IQS (Initial Quality Service). These teams were working on a high priority and all departments were expected to co-operate. Also they reported to the JDM directly and this helped them to sort out any problems they encountered. The best performing teams were awarded handsomely. Culture Corporate culture of a company reflects the kind of relationships its employees have with each other and the kind of bonding they feel with the company?s ideal and values. It also reflects the kind of strategy a company follows. Maruti which initially started as a PSU even though in collaboration with an MNC like Suzuki had a bureaucratic culture. A near monopolistic hold on the market made for a free-wheeling work force unconcerned with competition and innovation. But ever since liberalization and privatization the culture of Maruti has undergone a sea change. A small example will suffice: The day of a Maruti Employee started with signing the attendance register and coming late by half an hour or an hour was not uncommon but now with electronic swipe card based attendance a one minute delay can cost you a day?s salary. Earlier many workers used to come and sign the attendance register and then sub-contract their work to a temporary labor at the rate of around Rs.50 per day as compared to amounts around Rs10000 per month paid to them. With assured employment there was little incentive to contribute towards the well-being of the company. Even MUL employees who used to have a training stint in Japan used to feel frustrated and alienated by the work culture in  MUL after finishing their training. A reflection of this culture was the worker strike which crippled Maruti in 2001. After recovering from the strike Maruti had a perceptible change in culture. A VRS scheme introduced soon afterwards increased the sense of insecurity amongst employees, but it was all for a good cause. A hiked component of variable pay further brought company and employee interests in sync. An interesting ritual of starting the day with a two minute exercise on Japanese music was introduced. Also they have a common uniform and common canteen since the very beginning. So you can really walk into the company canteen and eat with the MD Jagdish Khattar. Now MUL has more of a mission culture with a clear mandate to maintain its market share and act as a small car sourcing hub for Suzuki. A look at company?s vision statement makes an interesting study. The company?s vision is to be the leader in the Indian automobile industry, creating customer delight and shareholders wealth, a pride of India. After its acquisition by a Japanese company does its vision of being the pride of India? Whosoever said that globalization is not full of ethical dilemmas! Comparing the culture of Maruti to other companies in India it is most similar to Hyundai and Daewoo in India, companies which have East Asian origins. Lot of stress is laid on team work and treating the company as an extension of one?s family. Innovation is also encouraged an example being the constant innovations in terms of process improvements using quality circles in Maruti. Of late an overtime culture has also slowly made its way into Maruti with the promotions linked to 180 ° feedback and staying late being used as a tool to signal your dedication and hard work. At this point it will be interesting to compare and contrast the culture and practices at Maruti and its Japanese parent Suzuki Motor Corporation of Japan. Organizational Structure and Work Culture at SMC, Japan A brief description of the Organizational Structure of Suzuki Motor Corporation Japan is given in the form of a block diagram below. SMC is headed by a chairman. The company consists of 8 divisions. These are further divided into subdivisions and departments. Organizational Structure of SMC, Japan is hsown in the appendix. Differences between Work Culture at Suzuki Motor Corporation Ltd. and Maruti Udyog Ltd. We interviewed A.B.Sinha, who is Deputy Manager (Engineering) at MUL and has been training for the last two years at Suzuki, Japan. During the course of this interview we discovered several interesting differences in the work culture between MUL and SMC. ?Employment at SMC tends to be a lifelong commitment. This means that neither the company lays off its workers nor the employee leaves the company for employment elsewhere. Hence any new employee joining the company is an important occasion and is celebrated in a series of ceremonial parties. ?The company trusts its employees to a greater extent and the employees in turn respond by being totally devoted to the company. There is no system of monitoring attendance through I cards and no system of punishments. The employees do not use the official telephone for personal calls. Also, there is less conflict and more team spirit. All assignments are given to teams. If one employee is not able to work then the others in his team try to help him. ?There is a strict hierarchy within the organization and the promotions are based on seniority. A Shinjun (entry level) takes 8 years to become a Kakaricho (asst. manager) and 8-10 years after that to become a Kacho (Manager). There is very little rotation between departments. ?There is a higher degree of precision in the planning. Jobs are allocated on an hourly basis. Meetings are short and focused. All employees record their movements on a board so that they can be easily tracked. ?Official timings are from 8:45 AM to 5:30 PM. However, most employees work from 8:45 to 7:00 PM on Wednesdays and from 8:45 AM to 10:00 PM on other days. The number of working days in a year is only 240. Power and Politics In MUL the control and power is mostly in the hands of management. During the workers strike in 2000 the management refused to agree to the workers demands. The officers ran the plant by supervising the operations of the plant and hiring contractual labour. This made it difficult for workers to sustain the strike. They had to call off the strike and were in fact forced them to agree to some changes laid down by the management. The power of Japanese has always been there in an implicit manner. The Japanese have acted as conflict resolvers whenever there have been any conflicts within or between departments. Many times the departments play politics wit other departments by trying to use the referent power available due to closeness with Japanese management. With the increase in stake of Suzuki Motor Corp. the legitimate power of the Japanese management has further increased. Strategic Profile A strategy is a plan for interacting with the competitive environment to achieve organizational goals. Organizations have goals that define where it wants to go and strategies define how it will get there. Strategy is usually one or more competitive actions. It involves choosing whether the organization will perform different activities than its competitors or will execute similar activities more efficiently than its competitors do. The strategic profile of Maruti can be described using the following models: 1.Porter?s competitive strategies: MUL introduced ‘Maruti 800’ in 1983 providing a complete facelift to the Indian car industry. The car was launched as a â€Å"People?s car† with a price tag of Rs40, 000. This changed the  industry’s profile dramatically. Maruti 800 was well accepted by middle-income families in the country and its sales increased from 1,200 units in FY84 to more than 200,000 units in FY99. Since then, MUL specialized in low-cost leadership. However its focus was not limited to small cars. MUL extended its product range to include vans, multi-utility vehicles (MUVs) and mid-sized cars. Hence it has low-cost leadership with a broad focus according to the framework of porter?s competitive strategy. 2.Miles & Snow?s strategy typology: This framework is based on the idea that managers seek to formulate strategies that will be congruent with the external environment. Organizations strive for a fit among internal organization characteristics, strategy and the external environment. This framework describes four strategies ? the prospector, the defender, the analyzer and the reactor. Maruti has always maintained stable products with minor innovations aimed improving the utility of products. In 1983, it saw opportunities and innovated by launching Maruti 800. It introduced cars in other segments like mid-car and multi-utility segments. Since then, it maintained stable business for all its brands. Therefore Maruti can be called ?analyzer?, which is a combination of prospector and defender. Inter Organizational Relationships Inter organizational relationships are the relatively enduring resource transactions, flows and linkages that occur among two or more organizations. In today?s business environment it is extremely difficult for a firm to do business on its own. Inter organizational relationships play a major part in the success of a firm. Maruti and Government of India The Government of India has been a shareholder in Maruti Udyog Ltd. from the beginning. Till a few years ago the Government had a majority stake in Maruti which was reduced recently. At present its share in Maruti is 18.28%. The relationship between Maruti and government has always involved a third player, the Suzuki Motor Corp. Government has never been involved in day to day working of Maruti. But it had been involved in the strategic decisions in the past. For example introducing new models of cars required the prior approval of Project Approval Board which is under the Ministry of Industry. In 1998 the Government signed a contract with SMC under which the appointment of Chairmen and Managing Directors would be made only after mutual consultation. This was a result of a bitter quarrel between Government and SMC regarding management succession. InterOrganizational Relationships of Maruti With a decrease in shareholding the direct involvement of government in Maruti has reduced. But there are many other ways in which the Government decisions affect Maruti. Any changes in the Pollution Emission norms made by the Government have a direct impact on Maruti. Similarly other policies of the government may have a direct or indirect impact on Maruti. Maruti and Other Auto Makers For a firm like Maruti the role of inter organizational relationships is extremely important. Fro the time of its inception Suzuki Motor Corporation (SMC) has been involved in the production part of the organization with all the designs being provided by SMC. SMC has recently become the parent company of Maruti with a 51% stake in Maruti. This has enabled Maruti to have even stronger ties with SMC. Also many Japanese managers are a part of Maruti?s Management team. These kinds of relationships help companies to tide over crises that may occur from time to time. To quote a recent example, Maruti Udyog Ltd has been under pressure to meet the high demand for diesel vehicles, particularly Zen and Esteem in India. To meet this demand Maruti has asked the parent company Suzuki Motor Corporation to find an immediate solution for supply of diesel engines. Following this, the Japanese company is  exploring the twin strategy of in-house production and procuring from other manufacturers like Fiat, Opel and Volkswagen. The above example illustrates how relationships can be built like a chain from one organization to another and so on. The companies which earlier used to adopt an Adversarial relationship have started developing Corroborative networks in order to survive in today?s business environment.

Sample Charter

The various costs include: building materials, landscaping and safety equipment, shipping, labor, temporary housing, and office facilities, travel, administrative expenses, staffing, training, and stocking of inventory. Project Manager: John Tare, 011-52-444-123-1234,john. [email  protected] Com Project Sponsor: Alex R. Fitzgerald, CEO Acme Home Improvements, [email  protected] Com Project Objectives: Deploy Acme's capabilities to meet the commercial and private construction market demands in the Mexico City area.Expand into international markets to meet the competition head-on and eat them, not only at home, but also abroad. To meet this goal and compete effectively Acme must open its first store in this major metropolitan area inside 12 months. To open this store within a year, Acme will build a project team that communicates effectively, operates efficiently, and is experienced in international ventures. The project team will construct a KICK sq Ft structure, with an additiona l ask sq Ft of exterior space for garden products.The store's design must excel in supporting each of Acme's five core business areas: plumbing/electrical supplies, building materials, hardware and tools, seasonal/garden/yard, and paint/wall coverings. The project team will construct a comprehensive plan upon which they will base execution. This plan encompasses all details from site preparation through hiring and training. The project team will carry the company up to opening day. It is critical that the team stay on task and on time. Approach: ; Establish a cross-cultural team of Acme corporate personnel from the U.S. And local Acme De Mexico staff to coordinate the project. Conduct competitive analysis of home improvement stores in Mexico City. ; Develop store design. ; Develop detailed construction schedule. ; Construct and finish store. ; Plan hiring requirements. ; Prepare hiring and training plan. ; Establish supply chain plans. ; Develop advertising, promotion, and merchandi sing plan. ; Train employees in compliance with Acme corporate policies, standards, procedures, and provide specific job activity training. ; Plan and execute store grand opening.

People, Organisations and Society. (the question is in below,,It is Essay

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Critical Thinking - Essay Example s and ideas, to understand them at a deeper level or to make judgments about them, to make connections between them or even to develop beliefs and ultimately to arrive at appropriate relevant action derived from these thoughts. Critical thinking has been defined in many different ways. Scriven and Paul (2007) define critical thinking as â€Å"the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action†. However in order to understand what it means to think critically one must look at the components of critical thinking and the attributes of people who think critically. The best description of what it means to think critically is the ability of the thinker to take charge of their own thinking. In order to do this it means that the thinker is engaging in a number of processes including questioning, interpreting and evaluating information, assessing and analyzing information, examining their own beliefs and assumptions and weighing up opinions against facts. One of the important criteria for thinking critically that differentiates it from other kinds of thinking such as creative thinking is that the thinking leads to reactive behaviors that are rational. To think critically therefore means more than just having thoughts; it means analyzing and evaluating an assessing not just thoughts but beliefs to improve life. Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (2007). The Critical Thinking Community. Retrieved February 12, 2008, from Foundation for Critical Thinking Web site:

Millennium project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Millennium project - Essay Example The Dome was not only envisaged to be a unique landmark but a huge tourist attraction that would reflect the financial success of the project. The Millennium Dome was a pet project of the labour government of UK. It was initiated by John Major of conservative party and taken over in 1997 when Tony Blair of labour party, came to power. Blair made the Millennium Dome as the most favoured project that would herald the success of labour party and subsequently that of Blair’s vision of putting Britain’s architectural marvel on the world map as the most celebrated building of the millennium. Blair had claimed that Dome would be ‘a triumph of confidence over cynicism, boldness over blandness, excellence over mediocrity’ (BBC, 2001). The circular Dome is constructed over an area of 186 acre on Greenwich Peninsula with twelve 100m high support towers that signify Greenwich Mean Time or twelve months of the year. The diameter of the dome is 365 days corresponding to the days in a year (CMS committee, 1997). It is one of the largest Domes of the world. It is the most famous landmark of London that celebrates millennium. Richard Rogers was the chief architect and Buro Harold, the engineer who realized the dream of constructing the world’s most recognizable architectural delight. Millennium Dome is not exactly a dome but resembles a canopy because of the pillars that support the whole structure. The huge space under the canopy is designed to hold mammoth events and festivals for people. It was opened to public on 1 January 2000 with large number of attractions and exhibits which were sponsored by hoards of corporate giants and continued throughout the year. The year long exhibition was supposed to showcase the talent of Britain in the myriad areas of art and culture. The Millennium Dome Show was held 999 times during the entire year. Despite best efforts by the Millennium commission to rope in corporate bodies to make it a success, the

Cultural Views on Health Essay Example for Free

Cultural Views on Health Essay Health beliefs and cultural practices are an essential part of todays multicultural society. It is beneficial for medical providers to be aware of the perspectives of different cultures. Minorities suffer from receiving proper health care because of lack of Jobs, no insurance, and their cultural beliefs. A persons cultural background can affect medical treatment and health care needs he or she may receive. People from different cultures have different beliefs on health care. The two different cultures I chose to discuss are Hispanic American and African American cultural views. I will be discussing the cultural views between Hispanic Americans and African Americans and their views on health care. The majority of Hispanic Americans are Catholics. Religious beliefs and spirituality play important roles in health care of Hispanic cultures in the United States. Mexican American believes health is a gift from God and their health problems are a result of Gods will. Some Mexican Americans may not have resources for health care and use traditional healings to treat their illness. Hispanics respect their elders and the men within their culture. According to Transcultural Nursing (1997-2008), Hispanics are accustomed to the professionalism of social workers, so they rely on their family and close friends for support or help. Curanderos and Santeros are two common healing practices among the Hispanic culture. Curanderos are naturalist healers who use herbs and plant to heal illnesses. Santeros use the power of the saints to heal and counsel. The majority of African Americans are Christians. Many African Americans view religious as an essential part of life. African Americans view God as the source of ood health and a source of serious illness. Many African Americans rely on religion, family, and social connections for support because of the unfairness they have encountered in the past. Many African Americans think they receive poor health care because of their ethnic background or their race. African Americans may not see a medical provider until this or her medical condition severe because of economic factors. Many cultures do not believe that organic approach is very helpful. Organic approach may seem impersonal to people who have a traditionally different method of care. Minorities, such as African American and Mexican American, have been dissatisfied with the overall health care services because of the unfair treatment they receive as individuals. The organic approach uses scientific knowledge of germs and diseases to find out the health of a patient by using physical testing, conducting studies and experiments, and keeping detailed patient records. From an organic perspective, a patients cultural beliefs and social practices are not the primary issues of health care. Harmony perspective sees illness as an incident that occurs for different reasons

Overview of Mammography and its Importance

Overview of Mammography and its Importance Mammography is the radiographic imaging of the breasts. It is a special diagnostic and screening tool of the human breasts. A mammography is done with specific x-ray equipment which is able to find tumors too small to be felt. Mammography examinations ultimate goal is the early detection of breast cancer, typically through detection of characteristics masses and / or micro calcifications. A mammogram is the best radiographic method available for early breasts cancer detection. It is ideal and indispensable for women above the age of 40 years old, for whom the risk of breast cancer is increased. Like x-rays, mammogram uses doses of ionizing radiation to create images but at lower dose amplitude-x-rays (most often around 0.7mSv). Radiologists then analyze the produced images for any abnormalities. A longer wavelength x-rays (typically Mo-K) is normally used for mammogram compared to those used in radiography of bones. Like many other medical tests, mammograms are not 100% accurate. The refore, a regular mammogram scheduling is needed to detect any early breasts changes before any obvious signs or symptoms show up. It is also scientifically proven that mammogram can reduce breast cancer mortality rate by more than a third. Despite its function in early detection of breast cancer, mammography has a false-negative (missed cancer) rate of at least ten percent. This is due to the dense tissue obscuring the cancer and the large overlap of cancer appearance in mammograms with normal tissues appearance. Mammography first started in 1960s. However, modern mammography has only existed since 1969 when the first x-ray unit dedicated to breasts imaging was made available to the public. Such examination as a screening device became standard practice by the year of 1976. Mammography then continues to improve as lower dose of radiation able to detect smaller potential problem earlier. Throughout the years, mammography has made advances to further improve its diagnostic ability. Digital mammography and computer aided detection are two examples of recent advances in the field of mammography. Digital mammography, also known as full field digital mammography (FFDM), is a mammography system in which solid-state detectors that convert x-rays to electrical signals replace the conventional x-ray film. These detectors are similar to those found in digital cameras where electrical signals produced are used to create images of breasts which are then projected on a computer screen or printed on a speci al film similar to conventional mammograms. A digital mammogram is essentially the same as a conventional film screen mammogram. Computer aided detection (CAD) systems help to detect abnormalities by using computer software. A digitized mammographic image that can be obtained either from a digitally acquired mammogram or a conventional film mammogram is used by the computer aided systems. The computer software then searches for abnormal areas of mass, density or calcification that may indicate the presence of cancer. It highlights the abnormal areas on the images, alerting the radiologists to the need of further analysis. A special mammography machine is used for the screening of breasts. The machine comprises of an x-ray tube connected to a breasts support which houses the film cassette or imaging device on a C shaped arm, with moveable compression paddle between the two. There are few standard functional requirements for the mammography machine in order to produce a good quality image. The high voltage generator of mammography machine shall supply a near direct current high voltage with ripple less than 5 percent. Most modern mammography machines have a automatic selection for kilo voltage (kVp) output in order to optimize contrast. The generator produces a constant potential and the high voltage applied to the tube must be from 22 to 35kVp in increments of 1kVp. The focal spot size of mammography machine should be as small as possible to ensure adequate resolution. A focal spot size of 0.3mm is recommendable for general mammography and 0.1mm (small focus) for magnification views. The tube current o f mammography machine should be set as high as possible in order to minimize exposure time and thus reducing the likelihood of motion artifact. A moving grid with grid factor of less than 2.5 at 30 kVp is essential to ensure optimum image quality. An automatic exposure control (AEC) is important in mammography machine. This is due to the wide variation in breasts sizes and compositions. There is little scope for mAs selection errors as there is a need for high radiographic contrast and consequently the system has low latitude. As for image recording material, most of the mammography facilities are still utilizing traditional cassettes, intensifying screens and single emulsion film with processing being taking place. Mammography usually uses cassette containing a single intensifying screen and the film which is usually green sensitive has a single emulsion layer. Both these equipment are essential to give optimum resolution. A mammography film requires high spatial resolution. It sho uld has enough speed to ensure that the dose is acceptable without being so fast that it causes visible quantum mottle and high contrast with enough latitude to show both dense glandular tissue and the skin edge. Quality control, assurance programs and strict processing parameters are vital to ensure the standard in film quality is not compromised. Any reduction in film quality may lead to misinterpretation of image and incorrect diagnosis. In the modern days, digital mammography is slowing making its way to the imaging field. This modern modality has some advantages over the conventional film mammography. The examination time and time between examining patients decreases as chemical processing and changeover of cassette is no longer necessary. Markers can be applied on image digitally. Images produced can also be manipulated. One of the major advantages of image manipulation is the ability for image magnification with significantly less unsharpness compared to those associated with macro or magnification images that are sometimes required to demonstrate suspicious areas already seen on mammograms. Unlike the conventional magnification views, digital magnification does not involve an additional exposure to radiation. Patients are required to do some preparations prior to a mammography examination. Fasting or observation in particular dietetic rules days before mammogram examination is not necessary. However, for women sensitive to caffeine, they shall refrain from taking caffeine containing products such as cola, chocolate and coffee two weeks before undergoing the test. This is because caffeine could make the breasts more tender which may affect the quality of radiograph. Menstrual cycle phase usually does not affect the outcome of the examination. However, it is also highly recommendable to schedule for mammogram one week following patients menstrual cycle. This is so as the breasts are less tender compared to that during pre-ovulatory and postovulatory period (half cycle) as well as during premenstrual period. It is also advisable for patients to wear two piece clothing on examination day to ease the undressing process for mammogram. Cosmetics, oils, creams, lotion and talc or deodorant must n ot be applied hours prior to test at the underarms and breasts areas. Failure in doing so may result in those appearing in mammogram as calcium spots. Patients are also encouraged to bring along all previous mammograms for comparison purposes by the radiologist. Most often, mammograms are done on older patients compared to younger patients. this is due to the breast tissue changes during life. The breast tissue density in younger women often makes mammogram rather difficult to interpret. However, as women age increases, some changes in the structure of breasts occurs as glandular and fibrous tissues reduce in size and this results in breasts tissues become more fatty. On the examination day, a simple interview with the patients is conducted before the examination takes place. They will be asked on any prior surgeries history, family or personal history of breasts cancer as well as hormone use. It is also the responsibility of the radiographer or technologist to enquire the patients last menstrual period as to determine whether the patient is pregnant. Pregnant patients are not recommendable for such examination. Upon completion of the short interview, patients are then ushered to change into hospital gown and remove all potential artifact before proceeding for the examination. When the examination takes place, the breast is compressed using compression paddle on the mammography unit. A parallel plate compression evens out the breast tissue. Compression of breast reduces the thickness of tissue that x-rays penetrate, decreases the amount of scattered radiation, and reduces the required radiation dose and holding the breast (remove movement unsharpness) still and thus improving the image quality. Both craniocaudal, CC view (head to foot) and mediolateral oblique, MLO (angled side view) of the breast are taken in screening mammography. Extra views such as geometrically magnified and spot-compressed views of particular area of concern may be taken in diagnostic mammography. While performing the craniocaudal (CC) view, the mammography unit is positioned with the breast support table (image receptor holder) horizontal and the height adjusted to slightly above the level of patients inframammary angle. The patient is then instructed to face the machine, standing w ith approximately 5-6cm back, feet facing the machine but body rotated 15-20Â ° away from the side under examination. This is so that the breast under examination is brought closer to the image receptor holder and aligned with the center of it. The patients arms hang loosely by her side and head is turned away from the side to be examined. The breast is then lifted gently up and away from the chest wall of patient. While supporting the breast, the height of the machine is adjusted so that the image receptor holder makes contact with the breast at the inframammary fold and the breast is approximately 90Â ° to the chest wall. The breast is then carefully placed in contact with the cassette. Hand is then slowly removed from the breast, whilst ensuring that no skin folds are created underneath the breast. Patients arm of the side under examination is then flexed at the elbow and the hand is placed on the patients lower abdomen or relaxed at the side of the trunk. This relaxes the pect oral muscle. Patients shoulder is gently pressed down to bring the outer quadrant of the breast into contact with the image receptor. Slight pressure is maintained at the patients back to ensure she does not inadvertently pull back from the unit and cause some tissue to be lost from the resultant image. Radiographers thumb is then placed n the medial aspect and middle finger on the superior aspect of the breast, gently pulling forward towards the nipple while the compression is applied slowly. Radiographers other hand is placed on the patients shoulder of the side being examined to ensure that it stays relaxed. The light beam diaphragm can be used during the application of compression. This is to ensure the nipple is in profile, all breast is included in the main beam, both medial and lateral margins are included, no skin folds and an adequate breast compression. A CC marker with left or right identifier is positioned on the axillary edge of the cassette, within the primary beam. Pa tient is strongly advised not to move and the projection is done quickly after that. The same CC procedure is performed on both left and right breast. The CC view with the same procedure is performed on patients both breasts. Besides the CC view, a mediolateral oblique (MLO) view of patients both breasts is also taken for screening mammogram. The positioning of patients for left breast MLO view is to have patient facing the mammography unit with feet pointing towards it. From the position used for CC projection, the unit is rotated through 45Â ° with the x-ray tube on patients right and the beam angled caudally. The height is adjusted to bring the lower border of cassette 2.5cm below the inferior portion of the left breast. It may be necessary to further adjust the height during patient positioning. The lateral edge of the left of the thorax is in line with the image receptor holder so that the left breast also lies next to it. The radiographer then stands behind and slightly to the right of patient. Patient is then asked to raise her left arm and chin. The raising of chin may prevent the superimposition of the mandible over the breast. Patients left breast is then held with right hand and patient is kep t in position by holding on to the right shoulder. Patient who is advised to lean forward into machine with feet still facing forward is asked to lean slightly laterally. The left axilla of patient should lie over the corner of image receptor that is nearest to chest wall. Radiographer then proceeds to life the posterior skin edge of the left axilla to prevent skin folds from occurring. Patients left arm is then pulled across and behind the image receptor holder. Patients elbow is also flexed so that the forearm can be placed on the unit for support and elbow is positioned so that it hangs down comfortably behind the holder. The humeral head is gently pushed forward and the corner of image receptor lies in the axilla, anterior to posterior fold. While the patient maintains the position, radiographer double check to ensure there is no skin fold in the axilla or under the lateral aspect of the breast and to check for and remove any creases at the inframammary angle. The breast is then lifted up and away from the chest wall while holding the patients left shoulder. The breast is then placed on the image receptor and compression is applied. Projection on the left breast is then taken. The same MLO view projection is then repeated vice versa on the right breast of patient. Upon completion of the examination, patient is advised to change back to her clothes. Patient is then escorted out and at the same time patient is informed on her next appointment for the review of results with the radiologist. Any discussion on the results with patient prior to the review of radiologist is prohibited. Mammography has been long known to be an effective modality for breast screening. Such examination improves physicians ability to detect small tumors and early treatment can be performed to reduce mortality rate. Mammogram is also the only proven method to reliably detect tumors as well as all types of breast cancer, including invasive ductal and invasive lobular cancer. Radiation used in mammography examination is of low dosage and usually has no side effects towards patient. Moreover, radiation does not remain in patients body after the examination. Despite its benefits in the purpose of screening and diagnostic, mammography poses certain risks towards its patients. There is a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. The effective radiation dose for this procedure varies depending on the thickness of tissue. However, radiographers are trained to use the lowest radiation dose possible for radiation protection purposes while producing the best images for evaluati on. False positive mammogram is also one of the risks in performing mammogram. Five percent to 15 percent of screening mammograms need more testing such as additional view for mammograms or ultrasound to further determine suspected abnormality. Most of the further tests turn out to be normal. However if there is an abnormal finding, biopsy may be performed on the patient to determine whether the tumor is benign or malignant. Women above the age of 40 are normally advised for a mammogram annually as they pose a higher risk of being diagnose with breast cancer. However, an ultrasound is more preferably performed on patients below the age of 40 as their breasts tissue is denser. Last but not least, women of all age should go for routine breast check up regularly for early detection on any breast abnormalities. Above diagram shows a conventional cassette film mammogram machine. Above diagram shows a Craniocaudal (CC) mammography view in progress. Above diagram shows a Mediolateral Oblique (MLO) view in progress. Above diagram shows a normal (left) mammography image compared to cancerous (right) mammography image.

Economic-consumer Self vs Moral-political Self Essay -- Economics Econ

I think Sagoff is right in his perception and feeling of a distinct departure between one's economic-consumer self and one's moral-political self. As his examples show (p.501), and I think we can all relate to at least some of them as much as we may not want to, not all preferences are actually expressed through the market (I know I am always sure to go to the gas station with the lowest gas prices and my college-student wallet is happy when prices are low, but I am much happier when they're higher because then the resource is being more appropriately priced). Given a conventional view of economists, one could imagine an economist stating that the most important/serious moral choices are those which one expresses monetarily (through consumer choice), even if they are inconvenient or personally non-/less- beneficial. The saying "put your money where your mouth is" comes to mind, as using one's money in our society is the ultimate proof of one's seriousness and commitment to a topic or issue. However, that viewpoint only strengthens Sagoff's interpretation of modern versus ancient society. He states that the liberties focused on in the modern ago are those surrounding privacy and property, whereas formerly, foci were on community and participation (p. 508). When accepting only individual spending and consumption as the true measure of one's preferences, it is only possible to evaluate decisions on an individual (privacy and property) level. I think that Krisitin Shrader Frechette's analysis of risk-cost-benefit-analysis (RCBA) demonstrates t his explicitly (though this is obviously NOT her intention). As she attempts to show, through her essay, that environmental issues and values can be incorporated into traditional cost-be... ...ype of discussion that Sagoff and Goodland/Ledec can have about the shortfalls in traditional economic evaluations because without it, nothing within the framework of RCBA will change. Shrader-Frechette states in defense of RCBA, that "one could always assign the value of negative infinity to consequences alleged to be the result of an action that violated some deontological principle"(p.511). However, I think that if RCBA in its current form is going to prove useful in the long-term, options like this need to be employed, not just talked about as a potential when trying to defend a questionable theory. I do not know the answer to today's million-dollar question about what alternatives should be employed, but I do know that settling for something that is very sub-optimal is ridiculous when what is required is less defense and more brainstorming and active debate.

Summary of Fallen Angels by Walter Dean Myers Essay -- Fallen Angels E

Walter Dean Myers wrote the book Fallen Angels. It is about America's experiences in the Vietnam War as told by the main character in the book, Richie Perry. Perry goes through a lot of changes and sees some of his good friends die in battle fighting for a cause that no one could agree upon. The book has 4 other main characters, Lobel, Johnson, Brunner, and Peewee. The book starts off talking about the experiences of Perry while he is serving in Vietnam. His best friend, Peewee becomes instant friends with each other when they meet in the barracks. Peewee helps Perry by standing up for him during several disputes. Peewee and Perry wake up the next morning and find out that they are to go on patrol in order to search out and destroy any VÃ ®et CÃ ´ng soldiers that they encounter. The patrol lasts for a few hours and Peewee and Perry are just about to camp, when a mutual friend of Peewee and Perry drops out of formation for a second and steps on a land mine, killing him instantly. Perry is so upset by this and needs Peewee to help him talk out his feelings of grief for the loss of the friend. Peewee and Perry have a few days to rest, because they have a weekend pass and it grants them 48 hours of freedom. They go to Saigon and have a few drinks and generally have fun, before they have to report back to their unit, which is stationed in the nort hern highlands of South Vietnam. When they return, they are happy that they made good use of their weekend passes in Saigon. The next...

An Overview Of The Malaysian Energy Sector Environmental Sciences Essay

Natural resources such as the air current and Sun are efficaciously utilize to bring forth energy. Since these types of resources are theoretically infinite, it offers attractive force to be utilised and developed extensively. In 2008, approximately 19 % of primary energy for the universe ‘s ingestion is sourced from renewable resources. Large hydropower constitutes the highest per centum followed by biomass. Modern engineerings like air current, solar, geothermic and other engineerings produce really less of the universe ‘s demand. Figure 2.1 and 2.2 high spots the present renewable energy scenario [ 7 ] . Malaysia is a state that rich with renewable beginnings of energy, such as biomass, biogas, solar, and mini-hydro. Renewable energy is expected to play a larger function in the close hereafter in the position of the depletion of non-renewable fuels militias and growing in energy demand. The Malaysia Government is beef uping the function of the renewable energy as the fifth fuel in energy mix. However, the part of renewable energy to the entire electricity coevals mix is really low. As of December 2009, renewable energy merely contribute & lt ; 1 % ( 55.5 MW ) of the electricity coevals for the national grid. Malayan authorities has approved the Renewable Energy and Action Plan in April 2010 and will implement in 10 Malaysia Plan and beyond. In 2003, the entire electricity generated in the state was 83,300 GWh of which 72.8 % was contributed by gas, 16.3 % coal, 6.2 % hydropower, 4.0 % oil merchandises and 0.7 % by biomass and other fuels. Out of the 78,900 GWh produced by the public-service corporations and IPPs, 45,450 GWh or 57.6 % was contributed by IPPs ( Statistic of Electricity Supply Industry in Malaysia, 2004 ) . At the terminal of 2003, the sum installed coevals capacity of the public-service corporations and IPPs in the state was 18,800 MW with a works mix of 58.2 % gas turbine and combined rhythm, 19.3 % coal, 11.3 % hydropower, 7.5 % oil, 3.4 % Diesel and the staying others. The state ‘s electricity production from 2005 to 2009 is shown in Table 2.1. The entire supply of energy in Malaysia increased from 2000 to 2005 and go oning addition in 2010. The chief beginnings of supply were rough oil and crude oil merchandises, and natural gas. The portion of petroleum oil and crude oil merchandises declined while that of coal and coke increased, reflecting reduced dependance on a individual beginning of supply in maintaining with the Fuel Diversification Policy. In 2010, all of the chief signifiers of energy supply had experienced growing in response to spread outing demand but, consistent with the Fuel Diversification Policy, the portion of crude oil merchandises was declined to 61.9 % while that of natural gas was increased to 15.8 % in 2010. However, although rough oil and crude oil merchandises is still lend the greatest proportion of the entire supply, a farther addition in the usage of coal and coke had allowed some decrease in the one-year growing rate of the oil supply, while the parts by natural gas and hydro had remained about the same. The security, dependability, quality and cost effectual supply of energy had been enhanced through an optimum energy mix preponderantly from domestic beginnings. The monetary value of rough oil in international markets is expected to stay high so that farther efforts will be made to cut down dependance on crude oil merchandises and to use their expeditiously. Between 2000 and 2005, the beginnings of fuel for power coevals were farther diversified with the increased usage of coal, consistent with the scheme to guarantee security and dependability of electricity supply every bit good as to cut down the high dependance on gas. Altogether, between 2000 and 2005, a sum of 6,420 MW of new coevals capacity was installed. Attempts were undertaken to cut down the high dependance on natural gas in the coevals mix by increasing the usage of coal. As a consequence, the portion of coal in the entire coevals mix increased from 8.8 per centum in 2000 to 21.8 per cent in 2005 whereas that of natural gas declined from 77.0 per centum to 70.2 per cent. During this period the electricity transmittal system was further expanded with the completion of new transmittal undertakings associating coevals workss to the chief grids every bit good as supplying connexions to new industrial and commercial countries. Execution of the rural electrification programmed ( which now stands at 92.2 % ) benefited abodes in Sabah and Sarawak in peculiar. Peak demand for electricity was grown at an mean rate of 7.8 % per annum and reached 20,087 MW in 2010. Enterprises are being taken to further heighten the efficiency and viability of the public-service corporation companies and the independent power manufacturers enabling a decrease in the modesty border while bettering the security, dependability, quality and cost effectivity of supply to clients. The fuel mix for power coevals will chiefly consist coal and natural gas, with coal playing an progressively of import function. New coal based independent power manufacturer workss utilizing electrostatic p recipitators and a fuel gas desulphurization procedure will enable coal-based production to run into environmental criterions. In add-on, as portion of attempts to advance the optimum use of municipal waste for electricity coevals, a pilot undertaking on waste-to-energy is being implemented in Peninsular Malaysia. When Malaysia formulated its first energy policy, concern over efficient use of energy and the demand for energy development to take history of environmental issues were cardinal. These concerns were driven by the oil crises of 1973 and 1978 and the implicit in issue was the demand to guarantee equal and dependable supplies of energy. The Energy Policy of 1979, the National Depletion Policy of 1980 and the Four Fuel Diversification Policy of 1981, have provided the model for the development of energy supply. The chief push of the energy policy works within a model of three wide policy aims ; supply, use and environment aims. These policy aims are instrumental in steering the preparation of the Malaysia five twelvemonth development programs. Since so the focal point in the energy sector has shifted to the sustainable development of non-renewable resources and the variegation of energy beginnings. The Four Fuel Diversification Policy identified the state ‘s preferable energy mix as oil, natural gas, coal and hydro power. In 2001, Government articulated the Five Fuel Policy, adding renewable resources and associating this to sustainability and efficiency.2.1.3 Status of Renewable Energy Utilization2.1.3.1 Biomass EnergyBiomass is all the Earth ‘s life affair, dwelling of stuffs produced by photosynthesis or organic byproducts from a waste watercourse. Therefore it is a signifier of stored solar energy. It includes a broad assortment of organic wastes and residues, typically from the agricultural sector, forestry, nutrient processing sector, carnal manures, sewerage and municipal solid wastes. In photosynthesis, turning workss organize energy and O by capturing sunshine, H2O and C dioxide from its milieus. The energy may so be released either by burning of the solid fuel or by transition into liquid fuels such as methyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol or biogas which chiefly consists of methane and C dioxide. This sort of utile energy produced from biomass is called bio energy. Biomass is an appealing energy beginning because it does non bring forth CO2 emanations merely because when it is converted into utile energy, it will breathe the CO2 it originally absorbed during photosynthesis. Biomass power workss exist in over 50 states around the universe and are no uncertainty a major energy supplier for many states throughout the universe. It accounts to about a 3rd of entire primary energy ingestion in the development states. Even for industrialised states, the energy part from biomass can be important. The states that derive the larger proportion of entire primary energy from combustible renewable and waste are Finland ( 20 % ) , Austria ( 7 % ) and Germany ( 5 % ) [ 8 ] .2.1.3.2 Solar EnergyEnergy that can be straight generated from the Sun is fundamentally divided into two classs ; solar thermal and solar photovoltaic ( PV ) . In solar thermal, it can be in a signifier of active solar warming where the energy from the Sun is collected with either flat-plate or evacuated tube aggregators and is used for domestic hot H2O or swimming pool warming. Alternatively, it can be inactive solar warming that uses air to go around collected energy in edifices to cut down the en ergy required for warming of habitable infinites. For bring forthing electricity straight from the sunshine, there are two chief ways ; solar thermic electricity and solar PV cells [ 9 ] . Solar thermic electricity dressed ores sunlight utilizing a system of aggregators. The concentrated sunshine so heats the H2O to sufficiently high temperatures to turn a steam turbine and hence generate electricity. Solar PV cells use a particular surface that emits negatrons when exposed to visible radiation. The traveling negatrons produce a DC current that can be passed through an inverter to bring forth jumping current.2.1.3.3 Wind EnergyWind power is the transition of air current energy into utile signifier, such as electricity, utilizing air current turbines. Most modern air current power is generated in the signifier of electricity by change overing the rotary motion of turbine blades into electrical currents by agencies of an electrical generator. Wind power is used in big graduated table air current farms for national electrical grids eve ry bit good as in little single turbines for supplying electricity to rural abodes or grid-isolated locations. Wind engineering is the fastest turning engineering in the universe, turning at over 32 % on mean yearly [ 8 ] . At the terminal of 2009, planetary installed capacity was 157,899 MW of which Asia acquires 24.6 % . China leads the list with entire installed capacity of 25,104 MW to day of the month. India runs 2nd with 10,926 MW followed by Japan with 2,056 MW and Taiwan sits in 4th with coevals of 436 MW [ 10 ] .2.1.3.4 HydropowerHydroelectricity is a well-established engineering, and the first renewable engineering to be developed. It is already a major subscriber to universe energy supplies, and provides one sixth of the universes one-year electrical end product and over 90 % of electricity from renewable [ 7 ] . Hydroelectricity eliminates the fuel gas emanations from fossil fuel burning, including pollutants such as S dioxide, azotic oxide, C monoxide, dust, and quicksilver in the coal. Hydroelectricity besides avoids the jeopardies of coal excavation and the indirect wellness effects of coal-burning. Compared to atomic power, hydroelectricity generates no atomic waste, has none of the dangers associated with U excavation, nor atomic leaks. Unlike U, hydroelectricity is besides a renewable energy beginning. Compared to weave farms, hydroelectricity power workss have a more predictable burden factor. If the undertaking has a storage reservoir, it can be dispatched to bring forth power when needed. Hydroelectric power workss can be easy regulated to follow fluctuations in power demand. Unlike fossil-fuelled burning turbines, building of a hydroelectric works requires a long lead-time for site surveies, hydrological surveies, and environmental impact appraisal. Hydrological data up to 50 old ages or more is normally required to find the best sites and runing governments for a big hydroelectric works. Unlike workss operated by fuel, such as dodo or atomic energy, the figure of sites that can be economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited ; in many countries the most cost effectual sites have already been exploited.2.2 Future Developments2.2.1 Energy GrowthThe Malayan economic system coming out of the recent economic downswing ( 1997- 2000 ) in the ASEAN part, coupled with a positive mentality of the Malayan economic system in the medium term, means that future demand for electricity is expected to increase significantly. In the following old ages, the demand is forecasted to turn at an mean rate of 6-8 % per annum. Furthermore, Malaysia ‘s pe ak demand is forecast to 21052 MW in 2010 for the Peninsular entirely [ 18 ] . In the twelvemonth 2010 it was anticipated that the fuel mix in Peninsular Malaysia were 58 % oil and gas, 33 % coal and the remainder hydro and other renewable beginnings of energy [ 18 ] . This was non come without an environmental cost since the focal point is on coal and gas to provide the future demand for power. Extra coal and gas-fired generators ( 10 GW in entire ) will breathe an extra 31 million metric tons CO2 ( coal ) and about 8 million metric tons CO2 ( gas ) per twelvemonth. The entire electricity demand growing in Malaysia was about 5.8 % in 2002/2003. The growing in electricity demand was driven more or less every bit among residential, commercial and industrial sectors. In footings of demand, about all sectors exhibited growing in their ingestion of energy in 2003, with industrial demand driven by a growing in the fabrication and building sectors. Supply growing was driven by three major factors: Commissioning of new power workss, ensuing in an addition of installed capacity Greater imports of coal for power workss Completion of the State Petroleum Company ‘s ( PETRONAS ) Liquid Natural Gas works ( MLNG3 ) , built in Bintulu to back up higher demand for LNG.2.2.2 Malaysia ‘s Energy PoliciesEnergy has contributed significantly towards the rapid growing of the Malayan economic system. Today, approximately 80 % of Malaysia ‘s entire population lives in Peninsular Malaysia, the hub of the state ‘s economic activities. As Malaysia progresses towards going a developed state, energy ingestion will correspondingly addition. In run intoing increasing energy demand, concerted attempts have been undertaken to guarantee greater security and sustainability of energy supply. Consumption of energy nevertheless produces some unwanted impacts on the environment and clime. Hence, sustainable usage of energy is being given attending in Malaysia. Malaysia energy policy came in the 70 ‘s, a clip of lifting petroleum oil monetary values and find of new oil beginnings in the Peninsular Malaysia. A Petroleum Development Act ( PDA ) was enacted in 1974 and followed by the National Petroleum Policy in 1975. However, a more comprehensive national policy on energy came in 1979. This National Energy Policy contains three principal policy aims to steer future energy policy sector development. They are as follows: Energy Supply: Assurance of equal energy supply through the decrease of the dependance on oil, and through the development and use of alternate beginnings of energy. Energy Use: Promotion and encouragement of the efficient usage of energy and the riddance of uneconomical and non-productive forms of energy ingestion. Environmental Conservation: Minimization of environmental debasement in recognizing the supply and use aims. In relation to the dependability and security of energy supply, Four-Fuel Diversification Policy was introduced in 1981, concentrating on four chief beginnings of fuel, viz. oil, hydro, gas and coal which was besides aimed to cut down the dependence on oil in the energy ingestion, peculiarly in the power sector. This policy is so expended in the twelvemonth 2005 to include renewable energy ( RE ) as the fifth fuel to supplement energy supply from conventional energy resources.2.3 Renewable Energy Programs and Incentives2.3.1 Small Renewable Energy Power ( SREP )To ease the execution of RE undertakings, a SREP was implemented on 11th May 2001 by the authorities to promote and escalate the use of renewable energy in power coevals. A SREP undertaking can be more than 10 MW in size, but the maximal capacity that will be allowed for power export to the distribution grid must non be more than 10 MW. Under SREP, the use of all types of RE, including biomass, biogas, municipal waste, solar, mini-hydro and air current, are allowed. As in 2010, 43 undertakings with mark capacity of 286.15MW have been approved by the authorities utilizing assorted types of renewable energy ( Fig 2.3 ) , with the most approaching from biomass and mini hydro. However, merely ten 10 undertakings are presently in operation with a entire capacity of 56.7MW. Figure 2.3: Status and Potential SREP Projects in Malaysia Under SREP, the old Renewable Energy Power Purchase Agreement ( REPPA ) selling monetary value agreed upon by the National Power Utility ( TNB ) for all RE grid connected undertakings, ranged from 14-17 cent/kWh ( US4.6 cents/kWh ) . However, the electricity duty of 17 cent/kWh ( US5. 6 cents/kWh ) seems non to supply high adequate rate of return to pull investors or undertaking developers given the size of the undertaking under SREP. Consequently, the Government has increased the electricity duty for biomass and biogas undertakings to 19 cent/kWh ( US6.2 cents/kWh ) in September 2006 and later the monetary value has been adjusted to 21 cent/kWh ( US6.9 cents/kWh ) effectual August 2007. However, the monetary value for other RE resources such as Hydro and Solar remain at 17 cent/kWh. The addition in duty is expected to escalate farther the SREP undertaking development.2.3.1.1 Progress SREP ProjectSeveral RE undertakings approved between the old ages 2007 to 2008 hold made important a dvancement. These undertakings will provide a sum of 65.75 MW when they are connected to the electricity grid by the terminal of 2010. It is deserving observing that these undertakings have progressed over a period during which alterations were made to the cardinal elements of the SREP Program – viz. an addition in the monetary value of electricity sold to the public-service corporation by RE manufacturers, and the standardisation of REPPA to cut down the dialogue clip period ( or the demand to flush negotiate ) for RE capacity below 2 MW. These alterations addressed the two factors that were found by the 2006 survey to hold impeded the execution of SREP approved undertakings.2.3.2 Biomass Power Generation & A ; Demonstration Project ( BioGen )Biomass Power Generation and Demonstration ( BioGen ) Undertaking was so introduced in October 2002 with the ultimate aim to advance and show biomass and biogas grid-connected power coevals undertakings and cut down the growing rate of GHG emanations from fossil fuel by using extra oil thenar biomass residues. BioGen facilitates development of the grid-connected biomass-fuelled little power systems, disseminates awareness information in palm oil industry, provides edifice and proficient aid in policy preparation, and fiscal installation aid through favourable bank loans and revenue enhancement freedom among others. Some of BioGen important undertakings include the first 14MW ( export 10 MW ) power works in Tawau, Sabah which uses oil thenar residues ( empty fruit clump, fibre and shell ) that successfully mitigate 40,000 50,000 dozenss of CO2 in 2004 and more late, a 46.2MW and 500 kW power workss are grid connected and commissioned in April 2009 and a sum of 700MW off-grid electricity has been produced by private thenar oil Millers.2.3.2.1 Progress BioGen ProjectTo day of the month, merely two all-out theoretical account undertakings have been implemented and scheduled for committee in early 2009 ( some 7 old age s after the beginning of the BioGen FSM Demonstration Project ) , viz. : MHES Asia ‘s 13 MW IPP running on biomass utilizing EFB as fuel FELDA Serting 500 kW power works utilizing biogas from palm oil factory wastewaters ( POME )2.3.3 Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic Project ( MBIPV )The MBIPV undertaking caters for the successful execution of GC-BIPV ( Grid Connected-BIPV ) installings in Malaysia under the UNDP/GEF supported Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic ( MBIPV ) Technology undertaking. The undertaking period coincides with the 9th Malaysia Plan period 2006 to 2010. The undertaking includes the development of appropriate, proactive and incorporate programs and policies that will make contributing environment for widespread acceptance of BIPV beyond the 9th Malaysia Plan period to work solar PV energy in Malaysia. The Undertaking aims to develop the model for a national BIPV plan for the tenth Malayan Plan ( 2011-2015 ) and beyond, supported with suited and customized mechanisms for local conditions to speed up the market development and heighten the development of the PV industry in the country.A2.3.4 SURIA 1000Suria 1000, a national plan to promote the acceptance of solar energy, was introduced during the gap ceremonial of the International Energy Conference for Sustainable Asia on 27th November 2006. One of the major enterprises under the UNDP-supported Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic ( BIPV ) Project, Suria 1000 targets the installing of solar cells at places and offices.

Head Sea Defences

There are two long groynes here. These are really effect at doing their job. Although it is not clear from the image how well these work, if you go there you will see it quite evidently how well they do their jobs. In some areas with long groynes, there have been large parts of beaches rebuilt. They are made out of rubble in order to slow down the weathering caused by the waves hitting the groynes. These work by stopping sediment from being dragged across the shore by the effects of Longshore drift. Their sole purpose was to protect the beach what was already there but have surpassed expectations and added a lot of material to the beach. For a clear understanding of all the different sea defences I did an evaluation of the effectiveness and Environmental (looks). Looking at the graph, there is no doubt that the groynes are effective at what they do. For the effectiveness they received the highest rating of 2. The size of the beach been restored back and the amount protected is a large amount. With a total mark of 3 from a potential 4, it is definite that the groynes are assisting in the protection of the beach. The groynes did lose a mark for the way they look aesthetically. Being a tourist destination it was important that Hengistbury Head is pleasing to the eye. 200m Gabion: At the top, there is an image of the 200m Gabion which has been built at the South Cliff. The result of placing the Gabion here is not clearly seen but an explanation will be given. The Gabion at Hengistbury Head is a long cage which has been put in place to hold back the rocks that have been filled behind them. Also the cages absorb the force of the waves and hold back the material behind them. The Gabion is working brilliantly to protect the South Cliff. The people walking on the land at the top of the cage would not be able to walk there if it wasn't for the Gabion. The Gabion prevents slumping which stops the material falling onto the beach and keeps it in one steady place. The gabion stops the waves eroding the ground further down. There is a footpath which is not visible in this image. This footpath wouldn't be there since the waves would have reached there if the Gabions weren't built and eroded the rocks and made large cracks, making it dangerous to walk on. In the end the purpose of the Gabion is to stop the waves force reaching too close to the land and destroying it. As a total score, the 200m Gabion faired quite well, but not too well. This is because of the -1 it received for its Environmental Score. After understanding how the Gabion works the picture displays more than clearly that the effectiveness of it is brilliant. It does what it is supposed to do more than perfectly. It has prevented the waves from reaching inland and in doing so ensured that the South Cliff remains safe. The Environmental Score for the 200m Gabion was very low. This is because it conflicts with the natural beauty at Hengistbury Head. This is because it is clear that it has been placed there and looks out of place at the Top of the beach. Rubble Groynes: This is a plan view of the East facing cliff and the groynes that have been built to prevent Longshore Drift. Unlike the other image, this image shows very clearly how the groynes have affected the beach. The red arrows point out the sediment that has been caught thanks to the groynes. It might not look like much but if you consider the material each groyne has picked up, it adds up a lot. These groynes have the same purpose as the gabion, i.e. stop he waves from eroding certain parts of the beach. The groynes prevent the waves from carrying beach material out to sea. This eventually builds up to a major part of the beach. At the top there is a graph portraying the evaluation the gryones received. Since there were so many groynes present, I worked out the means by assessing each groyne then calculating the mean. The total score of the groyne is similar to other defences, but the other defences lost marks due to the way they look and at the same time gained marks from their effectiveness. The image does show that the groynes are working well, but there is more that needs to be taken into consideration. Since the groynes are just piles of rubble, it is more than likely that a piece of rock will be taken out into sea by a strong wave causing the rocks on top of it to tumble and fall. It will also not be able to withstand the force of powerful waves. They could crumble during a storm completely. This defeats their purpose since they are most needed during storms since that is when most material is taken out to sea. Environmentally the groynes would have got a higher score if they were not so many of them present. The natural beauty of the East Cliff is questioned when so many of these groynes are built Sand Dunes: The sand dune at the top here is present at South Cliff. These are naturally occurring and have a wide range of sizes. They can be anything from small hills to huge mounds. They are most commonly found at the top of beaches. These are formed when winds lift the sand from the beaches surface and are blown to the top. The sands are caught by materials that come in their way such as driftwood. Over a long period of time, the sand keeps getting deposited in the same area. This eventually grows bigger and bigger and builds up into big mounds. These dunes are a perfect place for vegetation such as Marram Grass to mature and thrive successfully. Some wildlife might also be found to nest in these dunes. These dunes are extremely prone to erosion naturally as well as human contact. These dunes absorb the force from powerful waves keeping things behind them safe. At the top you can see the sand dunes scored top marks, the best score compared to all the other sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. Because the dunes form near the cliff and are so big (in most of the cases), it protects it from erosion from the sea. Because of this I though the sand dunes deserved top marks for effectiveness. Since they form naturally it definitely deserved top marks for Environment as well. These dunes do not look out of place since they are formed from material that is found at the sea. They blend into the surroundings perfectly and add to the natural beauty of the South Cliff. Causeway: At the top here you can see an image of the causeway at the East Cliff. From the picture here you can see that the causeway is having no effect at all on the beach. It is just present there. It is a pointless waste of money, time and effort. It was put there in the intention to work like the gabion cages i.e. hold the east cliff back. Since the causeway was placed at a ridiculously low height there is no effect at all in preserving the beach. The causeway has scored the worst compared to all the sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. It achieved an overall score of -3. As you can see from my above explanation there is no reason why the causeway should get a higher score. The causeway could possibly have been a great sea defence but the fact is that this was certainly not the right place for it. It got the lowest effectiveness score for this reason. Environmentally, I did not give it the worst possible score since looking at the picture carefully, if it wasn't built there, some people could have difficulties coming down from such a tall gabion. It could possibly be used as a step from the top of the gabion to the beach surface. That is why I think it did not look that bad environmentally. The first time I saw it, I thought it was built for that purpose. Overall the causeway was a total waste of time, effort and money that could have been used for other ways of protecting Hengistbury Head. Drainage Weir: At the top you can see an image of the drainage weir present at East Cliff. The drainage weir looks like a waterfall. It is man-made and fulfils an important purpose. The purpose of the drainage weir is to drain out and down all the water (more specifically rain water) from the cliff to prevent it from becoming to saturated. If it ever does get over saturated the outcome could be major slumping. In this image you can see the drainage weir working at optimum. This is because the day we went, it was raining quite heavily. Vegetation grows very well next to the drainage weir due to the large amount of fresh water that flows from the top. Marram grass grows very well around it. The Marram grass also helps since it holds the sand together and stops it from eroding and falling. Looking at how effective it is in the weather this picture was taken in, it shows how effective it is. The bar graph here shows that it is as effective as the sand dunes. It has also scored a 4 out of a possible four. The effectiveness is unquestionable as you can see in the above image. The sheer amount of water flowing down from the top shows its effectiveness. Without it, there would definitely be a problem with slumping. It also got top scores for environmental since it does look very good. Being a man-made object, it perfectly fits the environment and at the same time fulfils its purpose. Gabion Cages: At the top you can see an image of the gabion cages present at the East Cliff. If you look clearly at the image, you can see some sand at the bottom of the causeway. It is very clear that the gabion cages are doing their job. These gabion cages are filled with rocks just like the other ones. The gabion cages absorb the impact from the waves and holds them back, preventing them from reaching the east cliff and eroding it. They are doing exactly this but they are doing it well. They are stopping material being dragged into the sea and preventing erosion of the east cliff. The gabion cages have been placed on top of the causeway in order to have a much higher height. Also the causeway is not tall enough to protect the cliff. The cliffs have started to slump but the gabions have managed to drastically slow it down. At the top you can see an image evaluating the Gabion Cages' Effectiveness and Environmental. The total score being a 0 is not that good. The score was mainly affected by the Environmental rating, since it looked out of place completely and harshly affected the natural beauty of the Eat Cliff. Considering all this I decided to give it a -1 for an Environmental rating. It would have got a much better score if it wasn't for the presence of the cages and ruining the final outcome, but removing the cages would allow the rocks to fall over. The gabion cages are definitely effective as you can see in the photo. But I still have it a rating of 1 instead of 2 since there is some material creeping over them. This is quite bad since over a period of time the Cliff could slump over the gabion cages. Rip Rap: At the image at the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap which is visible at East Cliff. Rip rap is basically a lot of rocks scattered along the beach in order to absorb the energy from very strong waves and breaks them before they reach the cliff base. This type of sea defence is very cheap to put into action but at the same time it is extremely effective. It is a very good way of reducing the damage that might have been caused if powerful waves were allowed to get to the cliff base. Because of its effectiveness it slumping caused by undercutting is very unlikely to occur and because of this expensive ways to reduce slumping can be not put in place too often. In the end the rip rap is a perfect all round way of defending the cliff base and reduces slumping. At the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap's (present as South Cliff) score for its defence evaluation. It got an overall score of 2 which it deserved quite fairly and is quite a good score anyways. I gave it a score of 1 for its effectiveness because there were not any excessive amounts of slumping at the South cliff where the rip rap was present. Environmentally the rip rap fitted in its environment and blended in quite well but since it was fairly obvious that the rocks were placed there since the boulders were quite large and they were not any visible cracks on the cliff big enough to fit any one of the large boulders. But it did blend into the surroundings very well. The natural beauty of Hengistbury Head was not affected by the rip rap. Sea Wall: The picture at the top is an image of the Sea Wall at Mudeford Spit. Sea Walls vary in size and materials in which they are made from. The sea wall at Mudeford Spit is made of large concrete slabs that have been laid on top of each other. They have been place next to the beach huts to protect them from all types of waves that could potentially erode the ground on which the huts are built on. They are barriers against weak and strong waves. Unlike some other sea other defences like the gabions, the wall does not absorb any of the waves but just prevents the waves from reaching far ahead up the beach. The sea wall breaks the waves before they reach the huts, so even if they go above the wall the water will just spray on the huts. But if a tall and powerful wave does have the force to cover enough distance to reach the huts then it is very likely for the huts to get damaged since if it had enough force to reach up to the huts then it will definitely have enough to cause some serious damage. This is a problem because of the rather small height of the sea wall. But I think it is highly unlikely for a wave with that intensity to reach Hengistbury Head but due to the effects of Global Warming there can never be any assurance. At the top you can see an image of the evaluation the Sea Wall received based on its Effectiveness and Environmental. Mudeford Spit's natural beauty was already tarnished thanks to the littering, vandalism and beach huts but now thanks to the sea wall, the little left beauty has vanished. The Beach huts definitely stood out but kind of fitted into the area but this concrete slab wall does not fit in at all. It got an Environmental score of -2 for that reason. It did not deserve anything higher. I gave it a rating of 1 for its Effectiveness, because it definitely does what its suppose to do without any problems, but I didn't give it a two since it would've have been better if it was higher. This would have made the beach huts feel a bit safer. But the huts are still standing strong because of the sea wall. The final score the sea wall received a -1. The environmental score dragged the score down a significant amount. Beach Nourishment: At the top you can see two images. Both of them are images of the equipment needed to perform Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment is a simple idea which entails taking sand from a source (usually another beach) and dumping it into the beach which requires nourishment. This process is important because although most of the sea defences might be working efficiently to tackle the beach erosion, there is still a lot of sand that is carried out into the sea because of the waves. It is sometimes needed in order to widen a beach. This method doesn't stop erosion but simply replaces what has been lost by the waves. It balances the amount of sand on the beach because the areas of the beach are unlikely to lose similar amounts of sand. By replacing the sand from the worst affected area it makes the beach look more pleasing to the eye. A problem with this method is that the sand needs to be continually replaced since the sand naturally on the beach erodes away slower than the sand that has been artificially added. At the top you can see an image of the graph with the evaluation of Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment has also been awarded the top score with a four out of four. The Beach Nourishment is definitely an effective way of dealing with the wave's strong backwash. It allows the artificially added waves to be carried out the beach rather than the natural sands. And for Environmental, it deserved a two because it just replaces what needs to be there. It makes the beach look more complete. The only environmental effect it has on the beach is to improve it. Groynes: The various groynes seen in the satellite image below can be found at Mudeford spit. Looking at the image below you can see just how effective these groynes really are. They are doing a fantastic job of stopping the sediment in the waves from moving down the beach. The sediment is being carried down the beach by nothing more then long shore drift. Although long shore drift created Mudeford spit it could also destroy it or make it so big that the harbour becomes closed. For these reasons these groynes have had to be put in place. Looking at the bar graph above overall the groynes have done very well with an overall score of 3 out of 4. Environmentally on Mudeford spit because it is so crowded by beach huts I do not think that the vast amount of groynes effects the natural appearance of Mudeford spit. Nothing short of perfect describes the effectiveness of these groynes it is truly amazing how much sediment they have trapped over the years.